Open Access

This edited volume on “Recent Advances in Renewable Energy” presents a selection of refereed papers presented at the 1st International Conference on Electrical Systems and Automation. The book provides rigorous discussions, the state of the art, and recent developments in the field of renewable energy sources supported by examples and case studies, making it an educational tool for relevant undergraduate and graduate courses. The book will be a valuable reference for beginners, researchers, and professionals interested in renewable energy.

This book shows in a comprehensive presentation how Bond Graph methodology can support model-based control, model-based fault diagnosis, fault accommodation, and failure prognosis by reviewing the state-of-the-art, presenting a hybrid integrated approach to Bond Graph model-based fault diagnosis and failure prognosis, and by providing a review of software that can be used for these tasks.

Bond graph software can simulate bond graph models without the user needing to manually derive equations. This offers the power to model larger and more complex systems than in the past. Multibond graphs (those with vector bonds) offer a compact model which further eases handling multibody systems. Although multibond graphs can be simulated successfully, the use of vector bonds can present difficulties. In addition, most qualitative, bond graph–based exploitation relies on the use of scalar bonds. This article discusses the main methods for simulating bond graphs of multibody systems, using a graphical software platform. The transformation between models with vector and scalar bonds is presented. The methods are then compared with respect to both time and accuracy, through simulation of two benchmark models. This article is a tutorial on the existing methods for simulating three-dimensional rigid and holonomic multibody systems using bond graphs and discusses the difficulties encountered. It then proposes and adapts methods for simulating this type of system directly from its bond graph within a software package. The value of this study is in giving practical guidance to modellers, so that they can implement the adapted method in software.

Analytical redundancy relations are fundamental in model-based fault detection and isolation. Their numerical evaluation yields a residual that may serve as a fault indicator. Considering switching linear time-invariant system models that use ideal switches, it is shown that analytical redundancy relations can be systematically deduced from a diagnostic bond graph with fixed causalities that hold for all modes of operation. Moreover, as to a faultless system, the presented bond graph–based approach enables to deduce a unique implicit state equation with coefficients that are functions of the discrete switch states. Devices or phenomena with fast state transitions, for example, electronic diodes and transistors, clutches, or hard mechanical stops are often represented by ideal switches which give rise to variable causalities. However, in the presented approach, fixed causalities are assigned only once to a diagnostic bond graph. That is, causal strokes at switch ports in the diagnostic bond graph reflect only the switch-state configuration in a specific system mode. The actual discrete switch states are implicitly taken into account by the discrete values of the switch moduli. The presented approach starts from a diagnostic bond graph with fixed causalities and from a partitioning of the bond graph junction structure and systematically deduces a set of equations that determines the wanted residuals. Elimination steps result in analytical redundancy relations in which the states of the storage elements and the outputs of the ideal switches are unknowns. For the later two unknowns, the approach produces an implicit differential algebraic equations system. For illustration of the general matrix-based approach, an electromechanical system and two small electronic circuits are considered. Their equations are directly derived from a diagnostic bond graph by following causal paths and are reformulated so that they conform with the matrix equations obtained by the formal approach based on a partitioning of the bond graph junction structure. For one of the three mode-switching examples, a fault scenario has been simulated.

This paper proposes a novel approach to the generation of state equations from a bond graph (BG) of a mode switching linear time invariant model. Fast state transitions are modelled by ideal or non-ideal switches. Fixed causalities are assigned following the Standard Causality Assignment Procedure such that the number of storage elements in integral causality is maximised. A system of differential and algebraic equations (DAEs) is derived from the BG that holds for all system modes. It is distinguished between storage elements with mode independent causality and those that change causality due to switch state changes.

This book presents bond graph model-based fault detection with a focus on hybrid system models. The book addresses model design, simulation, control and model-based fault diagnosis of multidisciplinary engineering systems. The text beings with a brief survey of the state-of-the-art, then focuses on hybrid systems. The author then uses different bond graph approaches throughout the text and provides case studies.

When an abrupt parametric fault occurs in a system, active fault tolerant control (FTC) aims at reconstructing the system input after the fault has been isolated and estimated so that the fault is compensated and the system output follows a desired trajectory despite the fault.

Switched power electronic subsystems are widely used in various applications. A fault in one of their components may have a significant effect on the system’s load or may even cause a damage. Therefore, it is important to detect and isolate faults and to report true faults to a supervisory system in order to avoid malfunction of or damage to a load. If, in a model-based approach to fault detection and isolation of hybrid systems, switching devices are considered as ideal switches then some equations must be reformulated whenever some devices have switched. In this paper, a fixed causality bond graph representation of hybrid system models is used, i.e., computational causalities assigned according to the Standard Causality Assignment Procedure (SCAP) are independent of system modes of operation. The latter are taken into account by transformer moduli mi(t) ∈ {0, 1} ∀t ≥ 0 in a unique set of equations of motion. In a case study, this approach is used for fault diagnosis in a three-phase full-wave rectifier. Residuals of Analytical Redundancy Relations (ARRs) holding for all modes of operations and serving as fault indicators are computed in an offline simulation as part of a DAE system by using a bond graph model of the faulty system instead of the real one and by coupling it to a bond graph of the healthy system by means of residual sinks.

A bond graph representation of switching devices known for a long time has been a modulated transformer with a modulus b(t)∈{0,1}∀t≥0 in conjunction with a resistor R:Ron accounting for the ON-resistance of a switch considered non-ideal. Besides other representations, this simple model has been used in bond graphs for simulation of the dynamic behaviour of hybrid systems. A previous article of the author has proposed to use the transformer–resistor pair in bond graphs for fault diagnosis in hybrid systems. Advantages are a unique bond graph for all system modes, the application of the unmodified standard Sequential Causality Assignment Procedure, fixed computational causalities and the derivation of analytical redundancy relations incorporating ‘Boolean’ transformer moduli so that they hold for all system modes. Switches temporarily connect and disconnect model parts. As a result, some independent storage elements may temporarily become dependent, so that the number of state variables is not time-invariant. This article addresses this problem in the context of modelling and simulation of fault scenarios in hybrid systems. In order to keep time-invariant preferred integral causality at storage ports, residual sinks previously introduced by the author are used. When two storage elements become dependent at a switching time instance ts, a residual sink is activated. It enforces that the outputs of two dependent storage elements become immediately equal by imposing the conjugate3 power variable of appropriate value on their inputs. The approach is illustrated by the bond graph modelling and simulation of some fault scenarios in a standard three-phase switched power inverter supplying power into an RL-load in a delta configuration. A well-developed approach to model-based fault detection and isolation is to evaluate the residual of analytical redundancy relations. In this article, analytical redundancy relation residuals have been computed numerically by coupling a bond graph of the faulty system to one of the non-faulty systems by means of residual sinks. The presented approach is not confined to power electronic systems but can be used for hybrid systems in other domains as well. In further work, the RL-load may be replaced by a bond graph model of an alternating current motor in order to study the effect of switch failures in the power inverter on to the dynamic behaviour of the motor.

This paper picks up on one of the ways reported in the literature to represent hybrid models of engineering systems by bond graphs with static causalities. The representation of a switching device by means of a modulated transformer (MTF) controlled by a Boolean variable in conjunction with a resistor has been used so far to build a model for simulation. In this paper, it is shown that it can also constitute an approach to bond graph based quantitative fault detection and isolation in hybrid system models. Advantages are that Analytical Redundancy Relations (ARRs) do not need to be derived again after a switch state has changed. ARRs obtained from the bond graph are valid for all system modes. Furthermore, no adaption of the standard sequential causality assignment procedure (SCAP) with respect to fault detection and isolation (FDI) is needed.

Nowadays, engineering systems are becoming increasingly complex and, for design purposes, must be considered as multidisciplinary systems made up of components from different engineering disciplines. With regard to the systematic development and the analysis of models, interdisciplinary methodologies supported by software become more and more important. Bond graphs are a graphical description formalism particularly suited for multidisciplinary systems and used by modellers across the world. Bond Graph Methodology gives a comprehensive, in-depth representation of the state of the art, including recent results gathered from research articles, dissertations and contributions by the author on a number of topics. The structured and rigorous presentation systematically covers model development, analysis of models, numerical computation of models and modern software that can be used for a bond graph approach. The book also includes a range of case studies illustrating various applications of the methodology and provides a glossary. Bond Graph Methodology addresses fundamentals, as well as advanced topics, e.g., models of variable structure, bond graphs for sensitivity analysis and generation of equations for the study of robustness. The compilation and presentation of the material has been inspired by the author's extensive experience in research and teaching. A useful text for advanced courses in modelling, simulation and control, Bond Graph Methodology can also be used for self-study. It has been designed to serve readers interested in the subject of bond graph modelling and those with expertise in related areas, as well as members of the worldwide community of bond graph modellers.

The paper proposes a bond graph approach to model based fault detection and isolation (FDI) that uses residual sinks. These elements couple a reference model of a process engineering system to a bond graph model of the system that is subject to disturbances caused by faults. In this paper it is assumed that two faults do not appear simultaneously. The underlying mathematical model is a Differential Algebraic Equations (DAE) system. The approach is illustrated by means of the often used hydraulic two tanks system.

The 2006 European Conference on Modelling and Simulation (ECMS 2006) is a particularly significant event. Organised by the European Council on Modelling and Simulation (ECMS) and co-sponsored by the Society for Modelling and Simulation International (SCSI), it is the 20th conference in its well established series. Bonn-Rhein-Sieg University of Applied Sciences is pleased to host this conference one year after the 10th anniversary of the University’s foundation.

This paper introduces into a graphical, computer aided modelling methodology that is particularly suited for the concurrent design of mechatronic systems, viz. of engineering systems with mechanical, electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic components including interactions of physical effects from various energy domains. Beyond the introduction, bond graph modelling of multibody systems, as an example of an advanced topic, is briefly addressed in order to demonstrate the potential of this powerful approach to modelling mechatronic systems. It is outlined how models of multibody systems including flexible bodies can be build in a systematic manner.

Multidisciplinary systems are described most suitably by bond graphs. In order to determine unnormalized frequency domain sensitivities in symbolic form, this paper proposes to construct in a systematic manner a bond graph from another bond graph, which is called the associated incremental bond graph in this paper. Contrary to other approaches reported in the literature the variables at the bonds of the incremental bond graph are not sensitivities but variations (incremental changes) in the power variables from their nominal values due to parameter changes. Thus their product is power. For linear elements their corresponding model in the incremental bond graph also has a linear characteristic. By deriving the system equations in symbolic state space form from the incremental bond graph in the same way as they are derived from the initial bond graph, the sensitivity matrix of the system can be set up in symbolic form. Its entries are transfer functions depending on the nominal parameter values and on the nominal states and the inputs of the original model. The sensitivities can be determined automatically by the bond graph preprocessor CAMP-G and the widely used program MATLAB together with the Symbolic Toolbox for symbolic mathematical calculation. No particular program is needed for the approach proposed. The initial bond graph model may be non-linear and may contain controlled sources and multiport elements. In that case the sensitivity model is linear time variant and must be solved in the time domain. The rationale and the generality of the proposed approach are presented. For illustration purposes a mechatronic example system, a load positioned by a constant-excitation d.c. motor, is presented and sensitivities are determined in symbolic form by means of CAMP-G/MATLAB.